Cappadocia owes its magnificence not only to the generosity of nature but also to the creativity of humanity. While Mother Nature generously adorned the region with its natural wonders, humans added their own touch, transforming Cappadocia into a treasure trove of art preserved for centuries.
These lands, which have witnessed the rise and fall of countless civilizations, even hold wall paintings dating back 8,600 years. The human desire to pass down experiences to future generations combined with the Christian worldview brought vibrant colors to Cappadocia’s rock walls.
Despite the relentless passage of time, harsh natural conditions, vandalism, and opposition to Christianity, hundreds of stories, preserved in their color and language, continue to defy the centuries within Cappadocia’s churches.
The stubborn churches of Cappadocia, which have resisted all the adversities of life, are adorned not only with scenes from the Gospels but also with depictions of significant events from the Torah. These works, known as icons, were painted using the fresco technique in Cappadocia’s churches.
In some churches, there are also paintings applied directly onto the rock using red ochre, showcasing a simpler yet equally captivating artistic approach. These enduring masterpieces reflect the deep spirituality and artistic expression of their creators, standing as timeless witnesses to history and faith.
True Fresco (Buon Fresco)
Regardless of the material or style, any depiction of religious imagery that portrays the sacred, often in human form, is considered an icon. Icons can be painted on wood, walls, or even fabric. Frescoes, as icons, are executed in two distinct styles.
In the style known as true fresco, or buon fresco, the painting is created on wet plaster using natural pigments. First, a rough layer of plaster is applied to the wall and left to dry. Then, a finer plaster made solely of lime and sand is applied, and while this plaster is still wet, the painting is executed. Since the lime in the plaster hasn’t fully cured, the pigments applied to the wet surface continue to react with the lime as it sets. This reaction creates a thin, colored film layer on the surface of the plaster, which helps preserve the vibrancy of the colors for centuries. Additionally, because the plaster absorbs the pigments, the colors remain even if the fresco surface is scratched.
In the dry fresco or fresco secco technique, pigments dissolved in water are applied to dry plaster. It is worth noting that this method is less durable compared to true fresco, as the colors are not chemically bonded with the wall.
The Three Fathers of the Fourth Century
As early as the first century, Saint Paul, a missionary spreading Christianity, is believed to have traveled to the Cappadocia region, leading to the formation of the first Christian communities there. By the second century, Cappadocia had established a significant number of Christian communities.
However, fourth century Christian Cappadocia was profoundly shaped by three influential religious leaders known as the Cappadocian Fathers: Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa. The Cappadocian Fathers unified scattered monastic communities under monastic rules and opposed Arianism, a doctrine that denied the shared essence of the Father and the Son.
Christianity has been crucial to Cappadocia’s cultural identity, while Cappadocia has held great significance in the spread of Christianity since its early days. From the time Christianity began to be recognized as the official religion up until the 13th century, rock carved churches were built into the valleys and fairy chimneys of Cappadocia. Many of these churches have remarkably preserved their vibrant wall paintings to this day, a testament to their enduring resilience.
The Dark Church
Perhaps Cappadocia’s most stubborn church, the Dark Church, has remained remarkably preserved thanks to its limited exposure to sunlight. As its name suggests, the church has spent much of its existence in darkness, with only a small window allowing minimal natural light inside. This lack of light has helped the vibrant colors of its frescoes endure for over a thousand years.
Dating back to the late 11th century, the Dark Church features a closed Greek cross plan, a central dome, and three apses. The frescoes, protected by the church’s darkness, retain their vividness to this day.
The walls of the Dark Church are adorned with scenes from both the Bible and the Torah. Notable depictions include:
- The Hospitality of Abraham, illustrating the prophet welcoming angels, and
- The Three Young Men in the Fiery Furnace, a story of faith and divine protection.
From the New Testament, key scenes include:
- The Annunciation, where Mary learns of Jesus’ coming birth,
- The Ascension of Jesus, and many other pivotal moments from his life and ministry.
This remarkable preservation makes the Dark Church a jewel of Byzantine art and a must-visit site in Cappadocia.
The King of the Jews is Born
The coming of Messiah Jesus to Earth is first announced to his mother, Mary, by the angel Gabriel. Mary is betrothed to Joseph, and when she becomes pregnant, Joseph, confused by the situation, considers leaving her. However, in a dream, an angel appears to Joseph and tells him that Mary has conceived through the Holy Spirit. The angel instructs Joseph to name the child Jesus, as he will save his people from their sins.
On their journey to Bethlehem, Mary’s time comes, and she gives birth in a manger. Joseph names the newborn Jesus, marking the beginning of the Christian story. In Nativity scenes, the Holy Family composed of Joseph, Mary, and the infant Jesus is depicted in a setting symbolizing a stable. In the Dark Church of Göreme, Mary is portrayed seated on a bedding at the center, reaching out her right hand to the baby Jesus. To her right sits Joseph, depicted as an elderly man in a contemplative pose.
Jesus is born as the King of all Jews, a title that signals his divine mission. Three Magi, also known as the Wise Men or Magi Kings, see the star heralding the birth of this King and journey to honor and worship him. This scene, known as the Adoration of the Magi or Homage of the Magi, is also depicted on the walls of the Dark Church, emphasizing the universal recognition of Jesus’ divine kingship.
The Miracle of Jesus
The frescoes in the Göreme Dark Church vividly depict significant moments in the life of Jesus Christ, offering a deep narrative of his miracles, teachings, betrayal, and crucifixion. Among these, the scene of John the Baptist baptizing Jesus in the Jordan River symbolizes the beginning of Jesus’ divine mission on Earth.
The resurrection of Lazarus, one of Jesus’ most remarkable miracles, is also portrayed. In this scene, Jesus stretches out his right hand to Lazarus, who stands upright in his grave, wrapped in burial cloths. Lazarus’ sisters are shown bowing at Jesus’ feet, while Thomas, one of the apostles, stands behind him, witnessing the miraculous event.
The Transfiguration scene illustrates Jesus speaking with Moses and Elijah, during which his appearance transforms and his clothes radiate with dazzling light, reflecting his divine nature.
Other frescoes include Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem, where he is greeted with palm branches by the crowds, and the Last Supper, where he informs his apostles that one of them will betray him. In this depiction, unlike the traditional portrayal where Jesus is seated at the center of the table, he is shown at the head of the table in the Dark Church. The hand of Judas Iscariot, the disciple who betrays him, is depicted on the table alongside Jesus.
As a result of Judas’ betrayal, Jesus is captured and crucified. The crucifixion scene shows Jesus on the cross, with three figures referred to as the Marys on his right, including his mother Mary, standing closest to him. On his left is John, one of his apostles, mourning the event. A soldier is depicted piercing Jesus’ side with a spear, while two others attempt to quench his thirst with a sponge dipped in vinegar.
These frescoes, masterfully preserved in the Dark Church, convey the profound events of Jesus’ life, offering a spiritual and artistic glimpse into the core narratives of Christianity.
The Apple Church
The Apple Church follows a closed Greek cross plan, featuring three apses, a central dome, and nine smaller domes. The frescoes adorning its walls date back to the 11th and 12th centuries. It is believed that the church was named after an apple orchard that once existed in front of its original entrance, which no longer survives.
The wall scenes include Old Testament themes, similar to those in the Dark Church. These feature Abraham’s Hospitality and the story of the Three Young Men in the Fiery Furnace.
From the New Testament, the frescoes depict events such as the Nativity of Jesus, the Adoration of the Magi, the Baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist, the Raising of Lazarus, and the Transfiguration. In the scene of Jesus’ baptism, Jesus comes to the Jordan River to be baptized by John. However, John insists that it is Jesus who should baptize him. Jesus explains that it is God’s will, and as John baptizes him, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a white dove, descends upon Jesus. This depiction in the Apple Church shows Jesus schematically standing in the river, John placing his hand on Jesus’ head, and two angels holding Jesus’ garments.
Other scenes include Jesus’ Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the Betrayal of Judas, the Way to Golgotha (Via Dolorosa), the Crucifixion of Jesus, the Burial of Jesus, the Descent into Hell, the Women at the Empty Tomb, and the Ascension of Jesus. Additionally, the church contains depictions of saints. The narrative structure of these scenes shows similarities to those in the Dark Church.
The Sandal Church
Like the Dark Church and the Apple Church, the Çarıklı Church also follows a closed Greek cross plan. These three churches share significant similarities in both architectural features and wall frescoes. Among them, the Apple Church is noted for its clean and precise carving, while the Dark Church boasts the finest examples of frescoes. The scenes depicted in all three churches do not follow a cyclical narrative.
Dating to the late 11th century, the Çarıklı Church is believed to have been named after the sandal like footprint located beneath the scene of the Ascension of Jesus, which is thought to symbolize the footprints of Christ. The figures in the frescoes are depicted larger and more elongated compared to the other churches.
As in the other two churches, the central dome of the Çarıklı Church features Pantokrator Jesus, a common depiction of Christ holding the Holy Book in his left hand while making a blessing gesture with his right. In the Çarıklı Church, this depiction is surrounded by the archangels Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Israfil (Mizrael).
The Buckle Church
The Buckle Church, the largest rock cut church discovered in Cappadocia to date, consists of four main sections: the Old Church, the New Church, the Lower Church, and a chapel located on the side. The barrel vaulted entrance and the underground section date back to the church’s original construction period, while the remaining parts were added later.
The Old Church, adorned with frescoes in the early 10th century, features a barrel vaulted ceiling, while the rectangular plan New Church was completed later with equally elaborate frescoes. Both sections display scenes created with remarkable attention to detail, arranged in a cyclical narrative format. This technique allows the events of the Gospels to be understood in chronological order.
In the frescoes of the Old Church, red and green hues dominate, reflecting the style of the early 10th century. In contrast, the frescoes of the New Church, dating to the late 10th and early 11th centuries, are characterized by the prevalence of indigo blue. Buckle Church stands out among Cappadocia’s churches as the one filled with the highest-quality artistic works.
Yorgos Seferis’ Reflections on Buckle Church In his work “Three Days in the Rock Churches of Cappadocia”, Yorgos Seferis describes the Old Church frescoes as a reflection of “the entire epic of Christianity.” He notes that, despite their imperfections, these frescoes exude a freshness and sincerity characteristic of folk art.
However, Seferis expresses a completely different impression of the New Church. He marvels at the beauty of its scenes and describes an intense desire to revisit and see them again. He perceives the intersection of two artistic currents one from the East and the other from Constantinople as something almost alive. Toward the end of his writing, Seferis laments the inevitable fate of these works, fearing that they may one day succumb to the ravages of time.
The walls of the Old Buckle Church are adorned with the following scenes: the Annunciation to Mary, Mary’s visit to Elizabeth, the Test of Water, the Journey to Bethlehem, the Nativity, the Adoration of the Magi, the Massacre of the Innocents, the Flight into Egypt, the Killing of Zechariah, John the Baptist and Elizabeth hiding in a tree, the Commissioning of John the Baptist by Gabriel, John’s prostration to Jesus and his Baptism of Jesus, the Wedding at Cana, the Miracle of Water into Wine, the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes, the Commissioning of Peter and Andrew, the Healing of the Blind Man, the Raising of Lazarus, the Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the Betrayal of Judas, Jesus before Pilate, Jesus on the Way to Golgotha, the Crucifixion, the Descent from the Cross, the Entombment, the Women at the Empty Tomb, the Descent into Hell, and the Ascension of Jesus.
In the New Tokalı Church, the scenes include the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Proof of Virginity, the Nativity, the Adoration of the Magi, Joseph’s First Dream, the Journey to Bethlehem, the Calling of John the Baptist, Jesus’ Meeting with John, John Baptizing Jesus, the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple, the Commissioning of Matthew, the Commissioning of the Apostles, the Wedding at Cana, the Flight into Egypt, the Temptation of Jesus, Jesus in the Temple at Age 12, the Ascension, the Healing of the Rich Man’s Son, the Healing of the Paralytic, the Raising of Lazarus, the Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, the Washing of the Feet, the Crucifixion, the Descent from the Cross, the Women at the Empty Tomb, the Descent into Hell, and Jesus and the Samaritan Woman. In addition to these narrative scenes, depictions of saints also decorate the walls.
Among the miracle scenes, which are more prominently featured in Buckle Church than in other churches, the Wedding at Cana holds special significance as it is Jesus’ first recorded miracle. In this event, Jesus is attending a wedding in the town of Cana and learns that the wine has run out. He instructs the servants to fill the empty jars with water, which then miraculously turns into wine.
John the Baptist plays an important role in Jesus’ life. While baptizing people, John foretells the arrival of someone greater than himself, heralding the coming of Jesus. However, John falls victim to a trap set by the ruling authority, Herod Antipas, and is beheaded. Upon hearing of John’s death, Jesus withdraws alone to a desolate hill. Many people follow him, and there, Jesus heals the sick among them. Seeing that the crowd is hungry and with only five loaves of bread and two fish available, Jesus looks to the heavens, blesses the bread and fish, and miraculously multiplies them, providing enough food for everyone, with plenty left over.
